The
headquarters of the shellfishery investigation at College Park,
Md., were closed in 1950 and Galtsoff, former chief of the section,
was permanently assigned to the Woods Hole Laboratory to conduct
research necessary for the preparation of a comprehensive treatise
on oyster biology. The Woods Hole Laboratory was also used in
the preparation of a comprehensive book about the origin, waters
and marine life of the Gulf of Mexico. In connection with this
undertaking, a large bibliography comprising several thousand
cards was prepared and is now kept in the library of the Fisheries
Biological Laboratory and in the library of the MBL at Woods
Hole. Additional copies were distributed among the participating
institutions of the Gulf area.
III. Woods Hole Laboratory, Center for International
Fisheries Research
In 1951, Herbert W. Graham replaced Royce as Chief of North
Atlantic Fishery Investigations and Director of the Laboratory.
This year marks the beginning of new work for the Fisheries
Laboratory at Woods Hole. In addition to its function as a fishery
research center for the North Atlantic area, it became the center
of American research activities in relation to the International
Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF). The
International Commission originated with the convention of 11
countries in Washington, D.C., in January 1949. They entered
into an agreement which was ratified on July 3, 1950, by four
signatory governments namely, Canada, Iceland, the United Kingdom,
and the United States of America. At present (1962) 12 participating
governments comprise the Commission.
The activities of ICNAF extend over a huge area, nearly two
million square miles, of the ocean west of longitude 42°W. And
north of latitude 39° N. Along the west coast of Greenland the
are covers about one-half of the width of Davis Strait and extends
in a northwesterly direction into Baffin Bay where it terminates
at the point of latitude 78° 10"N. And longitude 73° 30" W.
the entire area is subdivided into five subareas. In order to
carry out the Commissioner's objectives for the investigation,
protection and conservation of fisheries, a panel has been established
for each subarea. The representation of governments on each
panel is reviewed annually by the Commission on the basis of
"Current substantial exploitation in the sub-area concerned
with fishes of the cod group (Gadiformes), of flat fishes (Pleuronectiformes),
and of rosefish (genus Sebastes) except that each contracting
government with coast line adjacent to a sub-area shall have
the right of representation of the panel of sub-area" ( Article
IV, International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries,
Report No. 1, 1951 ). The United States is primarily concerned
with sub-areas four and five, and has membership in panels three,
four, and five. Subarea five, in which the U.S. Government conducts
extensive studies on haddock and sea scallop, covers the entire
area of Georges Bank. Since the organization of ICNAF, the Fisheries
Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole entered into a new phase
of activities as research agency for the international organization
concerned with the management of oceanic food resources.
The Commission is a voluntary international organization, and
no government is compelled to join or to abide by its regulations.
The participating governments are honor-bound to respect the
conservation measures that may be designed by the Commission,
to provide the statistical data requested, and to participate
in the program of research activities agreed upon at the annual
meetings of the convention. It is understood that the participating
governments share substantial interest in the conservation and
in maintenance of a sustained catch from these fisheries. Its
success is an outstanding example of the benefits derived from
international cooperation.
As the work of ICNAF was organized, additional projects were
added to the program outlined during the first ICNAF meeting.
Correspondingly, the staff of the Laboratory was increased.
In 1952, 19 service biologists (including the Director) and
laboratory or fishery aids were on the Federal payroll at the
Station. By 1962 the number of biologists and aids increased
to 37.
After the first meeting of ICNAF in Washington, the Canadian
and American advisers met at Woods Hole in 1952 to formulate
a program of research which included the study of: the quantity
of small haddock destroyed at sea; mortality rates (fishing,
natural and total) of fish before and after regulation; total
contributions (in pounds) of year classes of groundfish species
of known abundance before and after regulation; growth rates
of young fish before and after regulation. It was decided also
to undertake the following studies: determination of a mesh
size which would permit escapement of small fish which are destroyed
by small mesh nets; and preparation of regulatory measures for
the consideration of the Commissioner.
The use of Albatross III made it feasible to resume
the observations necessary for various research projects. Since
March 3, 1953, cruises have been devoted to the collection of
redfish, surveying the distribution of haddock and cod eggs
and larvae, taking groundfish censuses, and conducting experiments
in mesh selectivity.
Haddock research reached the stage at which it was possible
to predict the relative abundance of each year class of fish
with a high degree of accuracy, although the causes of the fluctuations
in the abundance of fish of each year class of research data,
an international mesh regulation was adopted. After it became
effective in this country on June 1, 1952, the fishing for haddock
on Georges Bank or in the Gulf of Maine with a net having meshes
less than 44-1/2 inches (inside diameter) was illegal (Graham,
1952).
A new project concerned with the whiting fishery was initiated
with the view of determining the species involved and developing
the technique of age determination.
In 1950-53 the Station's chemical laboratory and part of the
general laboratory on the second floor were occupied by the
Public Health unit for the study of bacteriological aspects
of shellfish sanitation. Also, an office was provided for the
use of George A. Rounsefell, in charge of the editorial services
of the Branch.
In the shellfish laboratory, studies were made of the movements
of drills and conches in search of food; and the spawning and
setting of oysters in Onset and Chatham Bays. A survey of tidal
waters of Cape Cod was made with reference to determining the
extent of setting of oysters in the estuaries; results showed
that oysters set prolifically in almost all protected bays and
ponds. Because of the lack of interest and jurisdictional policies
exercised by local communities over shellfish grounds, this
latent oyster resource is not utilized.
During the summer of 1952, 10 independent investigators spent
several weeks each in special studies of various physiological
problems, the aquarium and other exhibits, prepared in cooperation
with WHOI, were opened to the public during the summer months.
The research vessel Albatross III was loaned to WHOI
for the year.
The Laboratory continued to attract scientists from foreign
countries. The list of visitors includes marine biologists from
Canada, England, Scotland, Thailand, Peru, Norway, Iceland,
and India. Nine independent investigators used the facilities
of the Laboratory to conduct research on problems of physiology
of marine organisms. Six of these received accommodations through
an agreement with the MBL for the exchange of facilities of
the two institutions.
On August 31, 1954, hurricane "Carol", the third since 1938,
struck Woods Hole and caused extensive damages to the Fisheries
grounds and buildings. Albatross III, which was
moored to the dock when the hurricane struck, was fortunately
saved by determined members of the Laboratory staff. The salt-water
system, already deteriorated by previous hurricanes, was badly
damaged again, no funds were available for a complete rehabilitation
of the salt-water pipes and pumps. The aquarium was closed and
not reopened until the new one was constructed a few years later.
The new project undertaken in connection with the study of oceanic
fisheries was the investigation of sea scallop, supported by
Saltonstall-Kennedy funds. The rapidly expanding scallop fishery
reached such proportions that it is now one of the major fish
industries in New England. Extensive population studies of sea
scallop were instituted under the direction of J.A. Posgay.
Plankton surveys of the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank were
continued by J. Colton and R. Marak with the view of determining
the drift of eggs and larvae in the area studied (Colton and
Temple, 1961). These observations were supplemented by the release
of drift bottles and their returns. To learn about the food
habits of haddock, the contents of stomachs of 2,000 fishes
taken from 41 locations were studied.
The haddock investigation was particularly concerned with determining
the type of tag most suitable for marking fish and with determining
the percent escapement of each size through the net. To improve
the observation technique, an underwater camera of special design
was constructed and tested. Also several biologists of the Laboratory
took training ain sustained underwater swimming with the aqualung.
In the shellfish program, studies were made of the structure
and elastic properties of shell ligament and on the rate of
deposition of shell materials during different seasons. The
electron microscope available at the MBL was used for these
studies.
In the following years, 1955-57, the program of groundfish investigations
was continued for the purpose of suggesting to ICNAF further
regulations. The following research projects were conducted:
mesh regulation for haddock fishery; population biology for
haddock (Taylor, 1958); redfish (Kelly, et al., 1959 1961a,
1961b), whiting, yellowtail flounder, industrial fish, and sea
scallop; fisheries of Delaware Bay; and plankton ecology with
reference to the abundance and dispersal of haddock eggs and
larvae. Study of bottom organisms over the Georges Bank was
undertaken in order to determine the relationship between the
distribution of fish to the availability of the food supply.
Various types of gear, such as scoops, dredges, and a ring net
mounted on a sled were used to collect animals attached to,
or burrowing in the bottom and those which live in water close
to the bottom. Tools of research were augmented by the use of
an underwater television camera, the specifications for which
were drawn up by the electronics equipment specialist who was
added to the Laboratory staff.
For the preparation of a treatise on oyster biology, several
physiological and histological studies were made regarding the
structure and function of the mantle, labial palps, and gills.
On the basis of physiological and ecological investigations,
a method was advanced for a quantitative evaluation of oyster
bottoms. With the cooperation of the West Chatham, Mass. Oystermen,
an experimental study of raft culture of oysters was undertaken
in Oyster Pond River near Chatham, Mass. This project demonstrated
that oysters suspended from a raft may reach marketable size
in 2-1/2 years instead of the usual 4 or 5 years, and that their
mortality due to drills and other enemies may be reduced to
a minimum. The method is particularly suitable to the inshore
waters of Cape Cod which are well protected from storms and
surf.
Efforts for complete rehabilitation of the Station initiated
after the hurricane of 1944 by the Director of the Fish and
Wildlife Service, A.M. Day, and continued by his successor John
L. Farley brought results in 1955 when Congress voted $930,000
for the replacement of the old buildings with a modern laboratory
and aquarium. The reconstruction of the breakwater and rebuilding
of docks had been made possible by a separate appropriation
of $160,000; the Dane Construction Company of Sommerville, Mass.
Was awarded the contract for this work. In 1957 the Director's
residence (former Coast Guard bungalow) was moved to a new site
and the barrack-type frame building (former WAVES quarters)
was given to the MBL and moved away. On December 27, 1957, the
Government entered into a contract with Mishara Construction
Company, Inc., of Brighton, Mass. For the razing of the old
laboratory, residence building, and maintenance shop and for
the construction of a three-story 44 feet x 190 feet masonry
building. The old buildings were vacated, and the Laboratory
personnel occupied temporary quarters in a private estate midway
between Falmouth and Woods Hole. The shellfish investigations
were conducted in a laboratory at the MBL.
Early in 1958 the old buildings were demolished. The staff of
the Laboratory consisted at this time of Director, Herbert W.
Graham, Assistant Director, the late Clyde C. Taylor, 21 fishery
research biologists, 21 fishery aids, 6 technical assistants,
and 16 persons employed in administration and maintenance. The
Albatross III, with a crew of 24 officers and men, was attached
to the Laboratory.
New and important changes in the research program and administrative
functions of the Laboratory, which became effective since 1950,
resulted from the reorganization of the Fish and Wildlife Service.
As previously mentioned, under the authority of the President's
Reorganization Plan II, the Bureau of Fisheries was merged with
the Bureau of Biological Survey to form the Fish and Wildlife
Service under the U.S. Department of the Interior. A new Fish
and Wildlife Act was passed during the second session of the
14th Congress and on August 8, 1956, was approved
by President Eisenhower. The "Declaration of Policy" of the
Act states that "Congress hereby declares that the fish, shellfish,
and wildlife resources of the Nation make a material contribution
to our natural economy and food supply, as well as a material
contribution to the health, recreation, and well-being of our
citizens" (Sater, 1960). The law established the Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries and the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife as
two independent components of the new Service. The Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries under a Director (the position at present
is occupied by Donald L. McKernan) consists of four divisions:
Biological Research, Industrial Research, Resources Development,
and Administration. At the same time the Bureau's field activities,
formerly under the direct supervision of the central office
in Washington, have been decentralized by establishing five
regional offices, and two area offices, each headed by a Regional
Director and assisted by an administrative staff. In accordance
with the new plan, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological
Laboratory at Woods Hole and other Bureau laboratories in the
area, are under the administrative supervision of the Director
of Region 3, with headquarters at Gloucester, Mass. John Gharett
is Regional Director of Region 3 which extends over the New
England area and southward including the states of New York,
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.
Under the new administrative scheme, the general term "field
station" applies to any field office of the Bureau other than
Regional or area offices, and the term "Biological Laboratory"
is used to designate a major research center engaged in biological
investigations. The official full title of the Woods Hole Laboratory
according to Amendment Two of Reorganization Memorandum No.
10 of November 18, 1958, is as follows: Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts.
The major activities of a laboratory are called programs each
headed by a program leader. The Laboratory Director has supervision
of all the functions of the Laboratory.
On March 1, 1960, when Laboratory personnel moved back to Woods
Hole and occupied the new laboratory building, the staff comprised
H.W. Graham, Director; Robert L. Edwards, acting Assistant Laboratory
Director (now Assistant Director); and the following program
leaders: Cod- J.P. Wise; Flounder- F.E. Lux; Haddoc- J.R. Clark;
Hake- R.L. Fritz; Industrial Fishery-R.L. Edwards; Redfish (formerly
called rosefish)-G.F. Kelly; Sea Scallops- J.A. Posgay; Benthic
Ecology-R.L. Wigley; Fish Behavior- R. Livingstone; Plankton
Ecology-R.R. Marak; Aquarium and Experimental Studies- C.L.
Wheeler; Instrumentation and Underwater Television- J.M. Crossen;
Port Samples Pool (to obtain data on the commercial landing
of fish)- L.H. Couture. The work on estuarine ecology conducted
in the past years has been discontinued, and the activities
of the Laboratory focused on oceanic fisheries and development
of practical measures of management in relation to the U.S.
responsibilities to ICNAF.
IV. The Aquarium
The aquarium has always been a vital part of Woods Hole as a
scientific and educational center. It was organized by Baird,
who strongly believed in the necessity of popularizing marine
biology and explaining to the general public the aims and achievements
of government research in conservation. No appropriations were
made, however, for the operation of the aquarium. It was assumed
that this work would be performed voluntarily and jointly by
the Director and Superintendent of the Station. For many years
R.A. Goffin, collector for the Laboratory and later its Superintendent
until 1941, took care of the aquarium to the best of his ability
and with limited funds. In arranging the aquarium material,
emphasis was placed on New England food fishes and on invertebrates
commonly found along the shores and used in the MBL classes
and for research. The aquarium doors were open every day from
8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. in order to give the MBL investigators
a chance to visit the exhibits between breakfast time and the
beginning of morning classes at 9:00 a.m. another favored time
was between 7:00 and 8:00 p.m. The tourists and other visitors
usually came between 10:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. The aquarium was
frequently crowded on holidays, especially when bad weather
kept the tourists from the beaches. The visitors were invited
to register and write their impressions. Spot checks conducted
at various times of the day showed that in the morning and late
afternoon hours the ratio of those who signed their names and
those who disregarded the request was 1 to 10. During other
hours it varied from 1 to 3 to 1 to 5. From these and other
checks it was possible to estimate that the number of visitors
exceeded 1,000 per day on rainy days and holidays. In 1945-50
the average number of aquarium visitors for the entire 90-day
period it was open was about 250 per day.
With the organization of the School of Science for the boys
and girls of the parents doing research work at Woods Hole,
arrangements were made for the children to have their own tanks
for keeping and watching the animals they collected in the sea.
The old hatchery provided plenty of room for this purpose. By
this policy many acts of juvenile delinquency were prevented
since the participants of the "aquarium projects" acted as voluntary
guards.
It was my practice to mingle with the crowd and learn directly
their reactions to our display. It was a surprise to find out
how many college instructors in biology had never seen live
dogfish, squid, or other common animals. Some of them admired
the graceful movements of the fish, the continuous color change
of the squid, the sliding motion of starfish, and the brilliance
of our common red sponge. Their previous acquaintance with these
forms of life was only through the unattractive specimens preserved
in formalin and used for dissection.
On many occasions the aquarium supplied the MBL classes with
material for experimentation and dissection. The demonstration
of electric discharges by the larg electric ray was the most
spectacular event carried out for several consecutive seasons
on Fisheries grounds by William R. Amberson for the students
of his physiology class. The ray was placed on a wide copper
plate to which an electrode was attached. The second electrode
was placed on the ray's dorsal side, over its electric organ.
A chain was formed of 40 to 50 volunteers holding hands and
two at the ends touching the poles. The fish was then disturbed,
and at the discharge of an electric shock all the hands jerked
up simultaneously with loud screams of the participants. The
event always attracted numerous spectators.
Many curious remarks were heard and comic incidents happened
around the outdoor pool. By long-established tradition, two
young harbor seals were kept every summer in a large sea-water
pool behind the sea wall. The lovable animals, adored by the
public, spent most of their time on a small raft anchored in
the pool. They became tame within a short time of their capture
and came close to the wall to accept mackerel or other fish
offered to them. At feeding time a large crowd would always
be standing on the walls of the pool. Besides the seals, sea
turtles and large sharks occasionally were placed in the pool.
There was always a discussion about the dangers of sharks, their
attacks on humans and questions why the seals were not afraid
of them. I noticed late one afternoon, a large group of men
loudly arguing some question and refreshing themselves with
frequent excursions to hip-pocket flasks. To prevent possible
unpleasantries I moved close to the group and heard how one
rather fat and vociferous fellow proposed a bet of $5 to $25
that he would enter the water where sharks were swimming and
remain there immobile for 10 minutes. The bet was accepted,
and the man stripped to his bathing trunks, stepped into the
water while his companions anxiously looked at their watches.
When he successfully emerged from the pool and collected his
bet, I quietly remarked that the large sand sharks in the pool
are sluggish animals which subsist on small fish and never attack
humans. Since the explanation was not appreciated by the winner,
I hastily retreated to my quarters.
The seals were the darlings of Woods Hole. People loved them,
and used thousands of films photographing them and asked endless
questions about their habits. There were many visitors to the
aquarium, including some local fishermen who with great regularity
came to see the exhibits and always commented on the condition
or rarity of the specimens they saw. Who knows how many of them
became naturalists and conservationists as a result of these
first impressions of life in the sea?
The aquarium serves educational purposes by emphasizing to the
public the value and necessity of conservation of aquatic resources.
In designing the new aquarium the Bureau attempted to carry
on the tradition of Spencer F. Baird. It is housed in a modern
building and uses modern techniques for exhibiting fish and
telling the story of conservation of marine resources. There
are 16 tanks for display of local marine animals and plants,
and no attempt is made to entertain the visitors with trained
animals or to show exotic species. As in the past, the aquarium
is open only during the summer. Shortly after Labor Day its
facilities are used for experimental research.
In spite of the very modest character of the aquarium it attracted
over 200,000 visitors in the summer of 1961. This tremendous
interest in marine science on the part of the American public
points up the need for more marine museums and aquaria in accessible
places to satisfy the desire to learn about the sea. The Bureau's
aquarium is designed to tell the story of marine conservation
and to give to the public an idea of the research being conducted
at Woods Hole. It cannot do more than this. The usefulness of
the public exhibits of the Fisheries Biological Laboratory and
their educational value cannot be denied.
V. Outlook for the Future
Effective management of fisheries resources of the open ocean
presents a great challenge that can be met by well-planned,
year-round observations conducted without interruption for a
number of years. The most important scientific phase of this
research is concerned with the causes of the great fluctuations
in the abundance of fish stocks. For the past hundred or more
years these fluctuations have greatly affected the fishing industries
of this country and in Europe. Frequently the cause was attributed
to one or another factor- such as overfishing, changes in ocean
currents, or temperature deviations from the expected average-
without actually ascertaining all the complicated interrelationships
between the welfare of a fish population, environmental changes,
and the effects of man's activities. The intricate picture of
life in the open ocean cannot be elucidated by a single short-term
observation in a restricted area. The census of fish populations
should be taken from year to year together with measurements
of changes that may occur in the oceanic environment, particularly
in climate and weather, observing the pattern of currents, and
determining the abundance of the food supply for different species.
Life in the ocean does not remain stable. Contrarily, it is
in a state of unstable equilibrium in which the struggle for
existence gives temporary predominance to one group which in
turn may be replace by another. For an understanding of such
interactions, long-continued and well-planned observations are
needed.
An evaluation of the events that take place among free-living
and rapidly moving marine populations cannot be made by studying
a single species of commercially important fish. All species
of fish compete for space and food and are directly or indirectly
dependent on the abundance of zooplankton and bottom organisms
which in turn are controlled by the abundance of microscopic
plants and bacteria. In final analysis the entire food chain
in the ocean from mineral salts, necessary for microscopic plants,
to the abundance of the giants of the sea- sharks, tunas, and
whales- depends on sun energy absorbed by the surface of the
ocean. Therefore, it is clear that biological observations on
a marine population must be based on detailed oceanographic
studies. The needs and tolerances of various species for temperature,
salinity, oxygen, and food must be known in order to interpret
possible effects of slight changes in the environment. To this
long array of particulars must be added the study of the behavior
of fish, and diseases which sometimes decimate the entire population.
This type of work requires the facilities of a modern laboratory
and availability of a sea-going research vessel. Continued and
uninterrupted observations in the open ocean are essential for
the success of this work. It is apparent that the work of such
magnitude can not be carried on by a single institution. Together
with a number of organizations and agencies concerned with marine
sciences, the Fisheries Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole
is ready to contribute its share in oceanographic research and
to assume a leading role in the studies of fisheries, their
conservation and utilization, the goal which was formulated
90 years ago by Baird. It is remarkable that the present day
ideas of oceanic research are essentially those which the great
founder of this Laboratory so eloquently expressed in his reports,
in his statements to Congress, and in his remarkable instructions
to the men he sent to explore the secrets of the ocean.
Let us hope that the ideals of Spencer F. Baird shall remain
alive and will continue to stimulate the young generation of
scientists who have now at their disposal the wonderful tools
of research that could not have been imagined at the time the
first marine biological station in the United States was founded.
